All about russia Free Essays

string(68) upheavels prompted the â€Å"era of stagnation† in the 1980s. Each general public on the planet with its embolic forces of conjunction with the nature’s changes and society’s disturbance is consistently progressing towards development and improvement for guaranteeing the support for the age straightaway. This run of the mill highlight of the Society is its Character by which it is perceived. This Character is additionally controlled by the communication of customary culture, its Land and its social and political inclinations, which since hundreds of years are delving further roots in the awareness of the residents and their scholarly disposition towards life and society. We will compose a custom article test on About russia or then again any comparative point just for you Request Now In 989 when St. Vladimir acknowledged Christianity, Russia ventured out to assume control over the legacy of Constantinopole. Again in 1453, when New Rome of Constantinopole had tumbled to Turks, Moscow rose as a â€Å"Third Rome† and the Soviet Union subsequent to taking its own course turned into another combination of the rationalization of history and its Duke turned into the â€Å"Tsar of All the Russians†. The historical backdrop of Russia starts with the East Slavs, an ethnic gathering, which was inevitably part into Russia, Ukrainian and Belarusians. This gathering rose up out of the Vikings who were the savage clans and uneducated agnostics enjoyed the movement of assaulting and ravaging, yet they were innovatively very progressed and had stable authoritative set up. These Vikings entered the Black ocean through the Russian waterway frameworks known as â€Å"Varangians† (from their name in Slavic, presently Varyag in Russian), however when they settled in the region, they came to be known as Rus. Essential Chronicle even says that, â€Å"These specific Varangians were known as Russes. † (Ross, Successors of Rome: Russia, 862-Present, Grand Princes of Kiev, Para. 1). Kievan Rus was the primary East Salvic express that was changed over to Christianity in 988(Online, Russian Church Architecture) and they carried with it the Cyrillic letters in order, which got credibility by the Soviet Union alongside the other irrelevant dialects like the Turkish of Central Asia. Poland and the Baltic States brought Latin letters in order quality of Francia and the Jews of Poland composed Yiddish in the Hebrew letters in order. What's more, with the progressing time, the little countries of the Caucasus like the Armenians and Georgians began utilizing their own letter sets. (Ross, Successors of Rome: Russia, 862-Present, Introduction, Para. 2) After the thirteenth century, Moscow turned into the huge social community and by eighteenth century, the Grand Duchy of Moscow framed the gigantic Russian Empire, extending from Poland towards the Pacific Ocean. By nineteenth century, advancement in the Western Countries made a mind blowing effect on the Russia, which drove Russian system to clear the path for changes for the general development and improvement. Accordingly, Russian serfdom was abrogated in 1861 yet it end up being unbeneficial for the workers that prompted the structure of progressive weights. With the abolishment of Serfdom and the start of World War I in 1914, Russia saw various changes in the economy and legislative issues. The most unmistakable change was the change of Stolypin agrarian changes, which moved the bygone obshchina type of Russian horticulture towards increasingly dynamic and entrepreneur arranged type of agribusiness, giving private possession rights to the ranchers, second was the First constitution of 1906 which was otherwise called principal laws and was sanctioned on April 23rd, thirdly there was the foundation of State Duma. A State duma comprised one of the few agent gatherings of current Russia. These changes achieved various changes in economy and even in the legislative issues of Russia, yet at the same time the despotic guideline of the Tsars didn't disappear totally and the outcome was the Russian Revolution in 1917. There were two unrests in Russia: First Revolution was the ousting of the Tsar and development of the Provisional Government and the other was the October unrest wherein Bolsheviks toppled the Provisional Government. The life in Russia during Revolution saw the gigantic change and vulnerability. On one hand urban communities and enterprises were mushrooming while then again there was extraordinary degree of vulnerabilities. Rustic populace started to relocate increasingly more towards the Industrially focused regions, working class of salaried representatives, specialists, and experts like specialists, legal advisors, educators, writers, engineers, and so on were on the ascent. Aristocrats also were experiencing through various stages, discovering approaches to alter themselves in this evolving economy. Two kinds of classes rose proletarians and business people, who were isolated along the lines of status, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, and conviction. There was development of various gatherings moving laborers, specialist educated people, upper class experts and so on which changed the entire surface of the life of individuals teaching themselves into the universe of realism. This quick industrialization prompted the congestion of the urban territories and poor conditions for urban modern specialists. Another working class was shaped somewhere in the range of 1890 and 1910 because of the expansion in the number of inhabitants in the St Petersburg and Moscow from 1,033,600 to 1,905,600. Subsequently there was agitation wherever which was the ground enough for the Russian transformation to fuel. The Russian insurgency brought the alliance of nonconformists and moderate communists to control from one perspective and afterward Communist Bolsheviks on the other. Somewhere in the range of 1922 and 1991, there was the start of the new time throughout the entire existence of Russia when Soviet Union appeared, an association that held the underlying foundations of ideological contemplations and recognitions. The start of the post-Stalinist in 1919’s saw the development of media and mediation of TV and radio projects in its region, which prompted the genuine arousing among the Russians in all the social, political and financial circles. Stalinism with this Marxism and Leninism approach supplanted the New Economic Policy (NEP) in the year 1920 with Five Year Plans of 1928 and aggregate cultivating, which before the finish of 1930 drove the Soviet Union to be developed as the major Industrial force on the planet, yet this had antagonistic impact on the workers because of the aggregate arrangement and the harsh proportions of the Government. The constraints and political, social and affordable upheavels prompted the â€Å"era of stagnation† during the 1980s. You read About russia in classification Papers But by the late 1980s, the shortcomings in the financial and political structures drove the Communist heads to set out upon the significant changes, bringing about the breakdown of the Soviet Union and the development of the Russian Federation. By the mid of 1990 when Yeltsin came to control he embraced most disagreeable Yegor Gaidar’s stun treatment for stopping the value controls, cutting in state spending, and beginning of the open outside exchange system mid 1992. These changes were the hit to the expectations for everyday comforts of a large portion of its residents, particularly for the gatherings who were getting a charge out of the advantages of Soviet-period state-controlled wages and costs, state endowments, and government assistance qualification programs and thus Russia endured a financial downturn significantly more serious than the United States or Germany had experienced six decades sooner during the Great Depression. Then again these financial changes opened the entryways of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, for the biggest and quickest privatization on the planet. The huge ventures were procured by the old administrators, prompting criminal mafias and Western financial specialists, and at the base level there was expansion, joblessness, prostitution, and wrongdoing. Assessment incomes had crumpled and Russia’s economy was additionally dove into the Financial emergencies in 1998. Russian Economy again recouped in 1999, because of the expansion on the planet cost of oil and gas. (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, Russian Federation, para. 5) By 2000, Yeltsin gave his renunciation, and gave the rules of the administration to the Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin. The entire of the character of the Russian Industry was reliant on the joined endeavors from the different circles of economy. Russia didn't depend on the European powers however jumped towards the advancement on its own endeavors, the different branches gained colossal ground, which rose with uncommon speed particularly between the main upset and the war and made the Russian students of history state, â€Å"We must surrender the legend of backwardness and moderate development. † When the war was at its pinnacle the tzarist Russia had flourished to impressive degree; with respect to each one hundred square kilometers of land, Russia had, at the hour of war, 0. 4 kilometers of railways, Germany 11. 7, Austria-Hungary 7. (Trotsky, Peculiarities of Russia’s Development, Para. 17). The Financial Institutions had likewise evolved in Russia to execute the development of Industrial Revolution however the overwhelming ventures, for example, metal, coal and oil were all heavily influenced by outside account capital, which had made helper and moderate arrangement of banks in Russia, and it was valid for light businesses moreover. Different countries were holding 40 percent of the stock capital of Russia, yet in the main parts of industry this rate was a lot higher. The Russian business even affected the social character of the Russian bourgeoisie and its political physiognomy and the grouping of the enterprises implied that there was no pecking order of transitional layers between the industrialist heads and the famous masses, yet the responsibility for remote hands prompted un-security. Every one of these components alongside the concentrated abuses of tzarism drove the Russian laborers towards the progressive considerations. Russia at the surge of the twentieth century had a populace

The Cellist of Sarajevo Free Essays

The Cellist of Sarajevo A. Foresee Look at the photograph above and the title of the unit. What do you figure this unit will be about? Record your considerations. We will compose a custom exposition test on The Cellist of Sarajevo or then again any comparable theme just for you Request Now By speaking to the picture of a man playing the cello, I wanna believe that this unit talk about music, a theme that actually I like to talk. B. Offer Information 1. What sort of music do you appreciate? Jazz? Rock ‘n’ roll? Traditional? Hip-jump? I like listened hip-bounce, reggaeton, rock in spanish and electro on the grounds that I think have beat and are anything but difficult to move. 2. What innovative things do you like to do? Play an instrument? Paint? Compose? Move? Plan or Decorate? Sew? Something different? Some of the time I like to compose letters or sonnets for individuals who are critical to me. 3. Do you appreciate going out to see the films, theater, shows, historical centers? No doubt I like going out to see the films, particularly with regards to one of my preferred motion pictures. likewise appreciate setting off to the show since you feel the vibration of music all over your body, and why also the historical center, is the most significant perspective on. C Background and jargon. The flagrant words are in Reading One. Before you read the entry underneath, read the words and study their implications. 1. Esteemed 2. Extravagant 3. Single 4. Unassuming 5. Collection 6. Alleviate 7. Disturbance 8. Oppose 9. Bloodletting 10. Expectation 11. frequenting 2 Focus on perusing Reading One: The Cellist of Sarajevo. Peruse the citation from Georges Braque and answer the inquiry. At that point read Paul Sullivan’s article and remember Braque’s proclamation as you read. 12. I think what you need to turn into the injury itself to locate the light that both look for. Peruse for fundamental thoughts. Work with an accomplice. Peruse the announcements and choose which three speak to the principle thoughts of Reading One. Talk about the purposes behind your decisions. 1. Including yourself in what you excel freely consistently help you to develop triumphant from the most troublesome circumstances. . Music can invigorate individuals the they have to calm both physical and enthusiastic torment. 3. Workmanship makes a network of individuals. These thoughts are identified with the perusing on the grounds that sums up what the creator implies in history of the cellist of Sarajevo. Peruse for subtleties. Work with an accomplice. Number the eight scenes in the â€Å"The Cellist of Sarajevo† in the request wherein they happen. 3 Yo-Yo MA plays a cello show of David Wilde? s work at the Royal Northern College of Music in Manchester, England. 1 Vedran Smailovic plays the cello with the Sarajevo Opera during the 1980s. The writer plays the piano in a nursing home 5 David Wilde peruses an article about Smailovic playing the cello amidst bombs; Wilde composes a cello arrangement in Sarajevo. 6 Smailovic plays the cello in the avenues of Sarajevo. 2 The creator is welcome to perform at the worldwide Cello Festival in Manchester, England. 4 On May 27, 1992, A Breadline in Sarajevo is shelled. 7 Smailovic grasps Yo-Yo Ma in the show lobby. MAKE INFERENCES 1. Since it was in memory of the butchery, the music was all the better he could do around then. 2. Since he needed to communicate fellowship with Vedran. 3. Since Yo-Yo Mo watched out over the crowd and loosened up his hand and afterward Smailovic rose from his seat. 4. Since everybody in the lobby emitted in clamorous, passionate free for all. They were exhuberant. 5. They are dressed officially. 6. The music help us to communicate our emotions and alleviate. EXPRESS OPINIONS 1. As I would like to think Vedran was daring and reasonable in light of the fact that in that time he made plans to do the thing he did best: music. 2. Indeed, it is. Indeed they do, on the grounds that they imply that everybody know music and appreciate it, the music mirror our emotions even we? re miserable or irate. 3. Indeed, I figure they do, in light of the fact that they are additionally people. Step by step instructions to refer to The Cellist of Sarajevo, Essay models

Mid-year Grade Reports And Other Common Questions

Mid-year Grade Reports And Other Common Questions Quick answers to a few of the common questions in my blog over the last few days - How will I know if MIT has received my mid-year grade report? You really dont need to worry about this. In a case where we need to see a mid-year report and it has not been received, we will personally contact your school to get it. In other words, if we feel that a mid-year report is needed to make a decision, no decision will be made until we have the report. I should note that a mid-year grade report cant save an otherwise problematic application. We generally use them to confirm a decision (i.e. to make sure youre sustaining the work that led us to want to admit you in the first place). Were not going to see an app with poor grades and think lets see if he/she got all As senior year that app would never have made it that far in committee. - What if my school is on a trimester system? Send us what you can this is usually the first trimester grades. - Is it too late to send in supplementary materials? Other than mid-year grades, yes. Youre always welcome to send them but at this point the committee will not see them until after selection, when it will be too late for them to make a difference. - What about standardized test scores? We have received test scores from all tests conducted in January 2006 or before, and these will be seen by the committee. - When will decisions be released? I dont know the exact date yet. Sometime in mid-March. It will likely be after Pi-Day, but hopefully only a few days thereafter. - Will you be releasing decisions online? Its our hope to be able to do so, but we are still testing. We are hoping to make the official announcement on March 6.

The Problem Of A Healthcare Worker - 1958 Words

Introduction Mr. Jones is constantly calling you for different things. It seems no matter what you do, he is not happy. You cannot seem to satisfy him or connect with him. When he does talk to you, he is rude and demanding. You feel anger, frustration, and exhaustion after caring for him. Has this ever happened to you? How did you handle the situation? As a healthcare worker, we take pride in helping other people. It is not always easy to help people who may display rude or intimidating behavior toward you. Learning to connect and work with people who are difficult takes time and patience. Difficult people display undesirable behaviors, including arguing the same point over and over again and choosing their own interests over what is†¦show more content†¦The patient may feel that other people are not listening to their concerns or not giving them enough care. There are many other reasons people can be difficult including (2): 1. Mental illness that affects their ability to cope with daily activities. 2. Substance abuse that interferes with their ability to cope with current situations. 3. Disease processes that limit their ability to do what they want to do. 4. Life crises that create stress and people tend to lash out. 5. Poor coping or social skills. 6. Poor ability to solve problems. 7. Personality problems that interferes with their ability to communicate appropriately. 8. Social or financial difficulties that create stress on a daily basis. In many cases, a person may be difficult if they are currently living through a difficult or troubling situation (2). Difficult or challenging behaviors may be related to a breakdown in communication or a misunderstanding. It is important to keep cultural differences in mind. What may be acceptable to say or do in one culture may not be so acceptable to another culture (2). Is the patient or co-worker really being difficult or can it be your emotions (2)? Consider how you feel caring for a patient who has very different feelings about health practices than you do. How do you feel about a patient who has drug abuse issues, anger issues, or hygiene issues? Sometimes differences in lifestyles can make it harder for you to accept another individual. It is

Comparison of Harry Potter and Jane Eyre - 905 Words

Harry Potter and Jane Eyre are two novel characters who have quite a lot of similarities. In their early childhood, both were raised as orphans, both experienced cruelty and unkind treatment from relatives who were supposed to take care of them, both were given opportunity to study and live far away from the people who treated them harshly, and both of them had a life-changing experience in their respective schools. Both Harry Potter and Jane Eyre grew up and lived with their relatives. Harry Potter lived with the Dursleys while Jane lived with the Reeds. Reading their story and how they had to live every single day of their lives with such cruel, unkind and selfish relatives†¦show more content†¦The life of Harry Potter changed when he was finally introduced to his true identity, a wizard, and had to attend school at the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. As for Jane, she eventually had the chance to be away from the Reeds and study at Lowood Institution, a school for orphaned girls. School was both tough and pleasant for Harry and Jane. Both had instant friends and instant enemies. Attending school is perhaps a taste of normalcy in their lives, except that their past still haunted and defined their characters. Harry was known at school as â€Å"the boy who lived† having survived the attack of a notorious wizard (Rowling 18); while Jane had to carry with her the rude description that her aunt made of her which is â€Å"deceitful† which resulted in her being labeled as â€Å"liar.† As a result, both Harry and Jane had to face the difficulty of trying to fit in and at times, had to bear the bitter consequences. Hard as it may seem, Harry and Jane managed to get through the most difficult phases at school and eventually found solace and comfort in the company of their true friends. Harry Potter discovers true friendships at Hogwarts through Ron Weasly and Hermione Granger. They protect and defend each other oftentimes with the help of Hagrid, a staff member at Hogwarts who had grown fond of them and protects Harry in so many ways. Jane Eyre, on the other hand,Show MoreRelatedLiterary Criticism : The Free Encyclopedia 7351 Words   |  30 PagesAgathon, by Christoph Martin Wieland (1767)—often considered the first true Bildungsroman[9] Wilhelm Meister s Apprenticeship by Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1795–96) 19th century[edit] Emma, by Jane Austen (1815) The Red and The Black, by Stendhal (1830) The Captain s Daughter, by Alexander Pushkin (1836) Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Brontà « (1847)[21] Pendennis, by William Makepeace Thackeray (1848–1850) David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens (1850) Green Henry, by Gottfried Keller (1855)[22] Great Expectations

Boy Bawang Free Essays

Concepts of State and Government State – is a community of persons more or less numerous permanently occupying a definite portion of territory and a government. Elements of State 1. People – this refers to the mass of population living within the state. We will write a custom essay sample on Boy Bawang or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2. Territory – it includes not only the land over which the jurisdiction of the state extends; but also the rivers and lakes therein. 116 square miles or 300,440 square kilometers 3. Government – it refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated expressed and carried out. 4. Sovereignty – the term may be defined as the supreme power of the state to command and enforce obedience to its will from people within its jurisdiction. a) Internal – or the power of the state to rule within its territory b) External – or the freedom of the state to carry out its activities without subjection to or control by other states. Origin of state theories 1. Divine Right Theory – it holds that the state is of divine creation and the ruler is ordained by god to govern the people. 2. Necessity or Force Theory – it maintains that state must have been created through force. . Paternalistic Policy – it attributes the origin of states to the enlargement of the family which remained under the authority of the father or mother. 4. Social Contract Theory – it asserts that the early states must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form society and organize government for their common good. Forms of G overnment a) Monarchy – or one in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single person without regard to the source of this election or the nature or duration of his tenure. Monarchies are further classified into 1. Absolute monarchy – or one in which the ruler rules by divine right 2. Limited Monarchy – or one in which the ruler rules in accordance with a constitution. b) Aristocracy – or one in which political power is exercised by a few privileged class which is known as an aristocracy or oligarchy. c) Democracy – or one in which political power exercised by a majority of the people. Democratic governments is further classified into; 1. Direct or pure democracy – or one which the will of the state is ormulated or expressed directly and immediately through the people in a mass meeting. 2. Indirect Representative – or republican democracy or one in which the will of the state is formulated. As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government a) Unitary Government – or one in which the control of national and local affairs is exercised b) Federal Government – – or one in wh ich the powers of government are divided between two sets of organs, one for national affairs and the other for local affairs. Relationship between the executive and the legislative branches of the government a) Parliamentary Government – or one in which the state confers upon the legislature the power to terminate the tenure of office of the real executive. b) Presidential Government – or one in which the state makes the executive constitutionally independent of the legislature. Other forms of Government a) Civil Government – one in which the affairs of the state are administrated and directed by the citizens or their representatives. ) Military Government – established and administered by a belligerent in the territory c) Constitutional Government – one in which the powers of those who rule are defined and limited in their exercised d) Despotic Government – one in which the powers of those who rule are not defined and limited in their exercised by a constitution e) Elective Government – one in which the state confers powers upon a person, or organization com posed of persons chosen by qualified voters f) Hereditary Government – the state confers the powers of government upon a person in a certain family g) Coordinate Government – government according to their nature among separate departments or bodies. h) Consolidated Government – the state confides all government powers to a single body i) De jure Government – founded on existing constitutional laws of the state and has the general support of the people j) De facto Government – existing constitutional law of the state and is maintained against the rightful authority of an established and lawful government. ) Revolutionary Government – installed whether by force or otherwise, not in accordance with the procedure prescribed in an existing constitution. Source of Constitution authority 1. The Filipino People 2. A Sovereign People 3. Belief in God Article 1 – National Territory The Terrestial, Fluvial and Aerial domains of the Philippines 1 . The territorial sea – it is that part of the sea extending 12 nautical miles (119 kms. ) from the low-water mark. 2. The sea bed – this refers to the land that holds the sea, lying beyond the seashore, including mineral and natural resources. 3. The sub-oil – this includes everything beneath the surface soil – including mineral and natural resources. 4. Insular shelves – they are the submerged portions of a continent or offshore island. 5. Other submarine areas – they refer to all areas under the territorial sea. Three fold division of navigable waters 1. Inland or internal waters – they are the parts of the sea within the land territory. 2. Territorial sea – it is belt of water outside and parallel to the coastline or to the outer limits of the inland or internal waters. 3. High or open seas – they are waters that lie seaward of the territorial sea. Article 2 – Declaration of principles and state policies Republican government – is a democratic government by representatives chosen by the people at large Sovereignty – implies the supreme authority to govern. How to cite Boy Bawang, Essay examples

Boy Bawang Free Essays

Concepts of State and Government State – is a community of persons more or less numerous permanently occupying a definite portion of territory and a government. Elements of State 1. People – this refers to the mass of population living within the state. We will write a custom essay sample on Boy Bawang or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2. Territory – it includes not only the land over which the jurisdiction of the state extends; but also the rivers and lakes therein. 116 square miles or 300,440 square kilometers 3. Government – it refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated expressed and carried out. 4. Sovereignty – the term may be defined as the supreme power of the state to command and enforce obedience to its will from people within its jurisdiction. a) Internal – or the power of the state to rule within its territory b) External – or the freedom of the state to carry out its activities without subjection to or control by other states. Origin of state theories 1. Divine Right Theory – it holds that the state is of divine creation and the ruler is ordained by god to govern the people. 2. Necessity or Force Theory – it maintains that state must have been created through force. . Paternalistic Policy – it attributes the origin of states to the enlargement of the family which remained under the authority of the father or mother. 4. Social Contract Theory – it asserts that the early states must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form society and organize government for their common good. Forms of G overnment a) Monarchy – or one in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single person without regard to the source of this election or the nature or duration of his tenure. Monarchies are further classified into 1. Absolute monarchy – or one in which the ruler rules by divine right 2. Limited Monarchy – or one in which the ruler rules in accordance with a constitution. b) Aristocracy – or one in which political power is exercised by a few privileged class which is known as an aristocracy or oligarchy. c) Democracy – or one in which political power exercised by a majority of the people. Democratic governments is further classified into; 1. Direct or pure democracy – or one which the will of the state is ormulated or expressed directly and immediately through the people in a mass meeting. 2. Indirect Representative – or republican democracy or one in which the will of the state is formulated. As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government a) Unitary Government – or one in which the control of national and local affairs is exercised b) Federal Government – – or one in wh ich the powers of government are divided between two sets of organs, one for national affairs and the other for local affairs. Relationship between the executive and the legislative branches of the government a) Parliamentary Government – or one in which the state confers upon the legislature the power to terminate the tenure of office of the real executive. b) Presidential Government – or one in which the state makes the executive constitutionally independent of the legislature. Other forms of Government a) Civil Government – one in which the affairs of the state are administrated and directed by the citizens or their representatives. ) Military Government – established and administered by a belligerent in the territory c) Constitutional Government – one in which the powers of those who rule are defined and limited in their exercised d) Despotic Government – one in which the powers of those who rule are not defined and limited in their exercised by a constitution e) Elective Government – one in which the state confers powers upon a person, or organization com posed of persons chosen by qualified voters f) Hereditary Government – the state confers the powers of government upon a person in a certain family g) Coordinate Government – government according to their nature among separate departments or bodies. h) Consolidated Government – the state confides all government powers to a single body i) De jure Government – founded on existing constitutional laws of the state and has the general support of the people j) De facto Government – existing constitutional law of the state and is maintained against the rightful authority of an established and lawful government. ) Revolutionary Government – installed whether by force or otherwise, not in accordance with the procedure prescribed in an existing constitution. Source of Constitution authority 1. The Filipino People 2. A Sovereign People 3. Belief in God Article 1 – National Territory The Terrestial, Fluvial and Aerial domains of the Philippines 1 . The territorial sea – it is that part of the sea extending 12 nautical miles (119 kms. ) from the low-water mark. 2. The sea bed – this refers to the land that holds the sea, lying beyond the seashore, including mineral and natural resources. 3. The sub-oil – this includes everything beneath the surface soil – including mineral and natural resources. 4. Insular shelves – they are the submerged portions of a continent or offshore island. 5. Other submarine areas – they refer to all areas under the territorial sea. Three fold division of navigable waters 1. Inland or internal waters – they are the parts of the sea within the land territory. 2. Territorial sea – it is belt of water outside and parallel to the coastline or to the outer limits of the inland or internal waters. 3. High or open seas – they are waters that lie seaward of the territorial sea. Article 2 – Declaration of principles and state policies Republican government – is a democratic government by representatives chosen by the people at large Sovereignty – implies the supreme authority to govern. How to cite Boy Bawang, Essay examples

Research in Transportation Business Management †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Research in Transportation Business Management. Answer: Introduction: Border management could be defined as controls and measures taken by a country or state with the aim of monitoring its borders. Recently as a result of globalization, the mobility of persons and products have significantly increased needing improved immigration and border control measures to more effectively and properly maintain the border cross of people and products. Consequently, countries are still faced with a common downside that of how to properly and effectively facilitate the legal mobility of individuals and products while preserving borders that is secure (Arbel Brenner, 2014). Recently, countries have been forced to recognize the role of trading to maintaining amicable financial growth. Obsolete and excessively bureaucratic clearance procedures on the border brought about by customs officials are at the moment considered as causing greater hindrances to trade than tariffs (Frontex, 2017). Border officials mostly the customs departments, border police, and the immigration services are charged primarily with the intake of persons and products at the ports of entry and/or exit, as well as for the detection and control of persons and goods who may want to pass the borders illegally. Effective border and immigration control strategies and policies, aided by professional, properly trained border, customs and immigration officials, enhance mobility management at the borders and prohibit uncontrolled migration thus enhancing the detection of illegal migrants and persons that have been trafficked, with the main aim of crippling organized criminal cartels and securing the rights of the affected vulnerable individuals (Arbel Brenner, 2014). Each country or state possesses its own border security concerns. Whereas borders at sea are the sole focus of places like Cyprus and Malta, other countries, such as Austria, lack any sea border but are have large and extensive land borders. Also, the policies and structures every country needs vary extensively. For example, some utilize trained border officials, whereas others utilize policemen and women linked to borders or other officials for border management (Frontex, 2017). For this paper, we will use Canada as our case study. Efficient border control goes hand to hand with the proper control of border processes to permit the free crossing of the border of less risky individuals and products for mutually beneficial objectives between states. Recently, instability in the economy has shown that neither the Canadians nor the Americans can possibly take respective successes as well as economic continued growth not seriously. The dangers as a result of local terrorism-related threats as well as external risks increasingly look like long-term dangers to proper security and control of the border for example organized violence acts and uncontrolled movement, instead of the crisis which manifested earlier on from the 9/11. The dangers of considering the security of the border and those other facilitating problems under this perspective will most probably lead to less effective security and financial impact (PWC, 2015). Effective measures can solve security difficulties in cases of bolstering economic growth and society aid while providing great examples of mainly free, successful and properly working societies to an observant world (Polner, 2011). However, various reasons seem to show that the chances as well the need for a vast survey of control of the border strategies that would help the two countries i.e. Canada and America administrations enhance border integration and at the same time control and decrease identified dangers facing individuals in the countries and while coming up with strategies that enhance their larger economic profitability as well as security (Polner, 2011). Firstly, politicians have begun realizing that the danger of local violence could bear a similarity to the larger period difficulties faced during the era of coexistence and huge competition among nations and ideology strategies that was very much characterized during the Cold War (Springer Davidson, 2015). These difficulties have further reinforced the requirement for financial as well as social tolerance along the medium as well as long-term. Also, they further show the vital obligation to solve safety difficulties aimed at enhancing economic success as well as the larger society help which would bring about attractive cases of free, successful as well as a full working society to the whole world (Springer Davidson, 2015). Also, the recent economic instability may have indicated the particular truth that not the Americans or Canadians could not take their economic security and prosperity seriously. The financial downsides occurring recently in the two countries carry distinct reasons. For the U.S. for example, it is indicated that the reduction in inflation of the specific market value, stringent markets, much exposure to loans and debts and other issues prone to the motor sector and money value imbalances with large partners in trading, for example, Brazil (Vallet, 2014). Canada, for example, indicates spillages coming from a weakening U.S. economy, the impact of high products cost and currency rates of exchange on the few industries and the impacts of an ever-present drop on an economy mostly dependent on export. The impacts relate to vast global difficulties that are beyond the management and control of any national parliament, especially those brought about by developing economies, for example, those of China and Brazil (Yu Huang, 2014). The failure to deal with the problems arising from insecurity on the border and border control enhances further the peril of causing arguments over insecurity and border controls into negative, zero or some conflicts among countries and amongst the nationals. These implications could potentially destabilize the division of raw materials amongst the competing society and political needs aimed at serving both security and economic security objectives (Yu Huang, 2014). Some individuals have further explained that the difficulties could be way pronounced during division procedures the security officials strategies in the U.S. Additionally, the decision makers from both Canada and U.S. are undergoing times of change politically. Principles related to effective border control (Davis Friske, 2013): Strong political will and between agencies cooperation to bring together extensive cooperation that has been brought about between the United States and Canada on a wider spectrum of border problems Improved border decision making cooperation in the planning and application of structural improvements Substantial increases in number of border officials ready for the job along the border, with relatively more specific recruitment duties to delegate recruiting more efficiently with traffic degrees Enhanced coordination of trustworthy ship schedules to reduce doubles, streamline entry needs, and apply proposed land pilot projects The formulation and in time record of performance standards and other reports which show the efficiency level relatively of particular strategies and policies in enhancing security and efficient border control aims and helping in the proper apportion of resources by the two government Enhanced discussion and consultation of other regional governments as well as other stakeholders, including first responders, environmental interest groups, landowners and economic interest groups in the formulation of policy procedures on all sides of the border. The important point of Canadas relationship with the U.S. from the 80s has solely been aimed at enhancing the financial benefits got especially from the trading openly and travelling. Since early 2001, a vital factor of benefitting from these advantages was aimed at reducing true and expected dangers that governance similarity and administration errors can help Canada to turn to a port and platform for violence acts against its neighbour therefore further building the point for U.S. local needs indifferent to the economic expenses of widening the border (Bradbury, 2013). The political transition as at now in the United States creates the best chance to take account of both successes and downfalls in merging improved, manageable degrees of security and border facilities for proper and usual less risky trade and travelling cross-border and in national borders by thousands of Canadians and Americans (Bigo, 2014). The old saying that a chain is as only strong as its weakest knot is especially shown when it comes to border management. And that the weakest point can mainly occur at the point where border authorities interjoin and especially in maritime situations, such as the Mediterranean, where attempted mass movement have become such an enormous issue. There are other objectives why efficient co-operation is so important (Damar Mordel, 2016). The largest security issues that are way past the ability of any one country to resolve alone, however strong they are terrorism, trafficking of people and arms control. It is also important to deal with these issues like visa controls, and free trade agreements not on a bilateral level but a multilateral and stringent governmental impact keep systems at par and fit to work properly (Damar Mordel, 2016). First, those in power and companies in all areas of the border have brought substantial monetary inputs in current border control strategies and ways which have enhanced the countries ability to create efficient safety. However, most of the ways are acts being developed which can be aided by a clearly defined external review. Enough cases of local violent acts have previously been uncovered by the local and cross-border officials cooperation and the need for continued observation as well as a confidence level in the efficacy of the current legal, safe nets in Canada and the USA (Carter Poast, 2015). However, setting up a safe and effective border to cater for future economic and financial growth needs stringent political authority as well as inter-agency cooperation to set up expansive legal cooperation which has previously been present between the two neighbouring countries relating to a large spectrum of the border as well as legal issues. Joint border control department was created and reports to cabinet officials in the U.S. and Canada. This would, in turn, create the much-needed point for ensuring border control requirements that could probably be side-tracked despite the differences in decision makers priorities (Atzili, 2012) Cross-border intervention and policing officials cooperation brings a format for efficient law-enforcement across the border, with small changes to enhance operational efficacy although the border issues still bring about significant revenue to dangerous cartels that are innovative as well as stubborn in most of the actions. Various analysts even explained that the efficacy of the kind of solution to divided safety might not possibly be manifested at the main office in D.C. (Carter,2015) The realization of the benefits is a main reason in the coming revenue apportioning choices, and in creating the much accountability among law enforcing officials and between them and anti-terrorism acts. The very near and innovative cooperation of the two countries law officials and groups at the border via IBETS could be the most vital of the integral reasons that differentiates the quality relatively as well as efficiency of the control of border on the north border side from that along the US and Mexico border (Carter Goemans, 2014) Secondly, specific systems to improve the safety and the efficacy of routine trading patterns between the two countries were brought about although, as shown earlier, enhancements could be undertaken to improve the access of these strategies and their interaction with the daily acts of people, relatives and companies with little or no reduction in current threshold of security (Gibler, 2012). However, the ways in which the programs have been applied have also been as a result of the widening of the border. This increases the challenges of economic cooperation across the border derived from bureaucratic supply processes and the many associations of individuals and societies across the state borders (Hassner Wittenberg, 2015). Pushing security far away from the point of entry or exit, or bringing together particular points of global safety, especially for railway and transport by trucks, could potentially bring about more opportunities for an equal win scenario by individuals and companies. Access to these kinds of ways ought to be enhanced through techniques that are low in cost for people and companies, and that dont really amplify broad safety threats (Ishise Matsuo, 2015) Enhanced Drivers License approach is one of the best forms of creating these kinds of strategies in which objectives of border security and control help each other without bringing about dangers to security nationally or large expenses to decision makers or individuals. It also shows the profits to be derived when safety strategies are merged to, and joined to, current admin and financial methods instead of putting them on each other (Scott, 2017). These kinds of approaches need a trustworthy, citizen-oriented outlook of both regional and national territories as national territories for governmental different, socially, financially and/or often culturally different states (Scott, 2017). A proper and functioning border, unlike others that are widening in the centre areas, needs the realization that the proper application of some of the lengthy war waged against external radical radicalism and its violence aspects have to be primarily brought about by a local as well as external agreement being managed for or near eternity (Guo, 2015) On difficulties relating to the economic and physical well-being as well as security for both neighbouring nations, there ought to be zero Liberals nor Conservatives, Democrats nor Republicans. There have to be persons that could master combining the safe and effective borders that could potentially enhance individuals and also provide protection to them (Stirrup Clarke, 2015). For a functioning border, there has to be vigilance on risky safety problems, as well as the ability and capacity to realize the bureaucratic and arbitrary actions that are all large organizations that are able with no adequate local and foreign aspects. It has to be realized further that the emerging issues seem to divide individuals from the people charged with having authority. Therefore, it brings about the danger of not considering the common participation as well as an agreement that proper safety needs for democracies (Menjvar, 2014). Empowering individuals to take a broader proportion of responsibility in their own security and also that of those other individuals around them is probably to bear higher returns when creating and maintaining common ground for security strategies, therefore making it less difficult to manage them. The procedure of involving individuals and society at large in the decision-making and the planning as well as the application of a border crossing across the two nations although lengthy and time-wasting illustrates many advantages of considering such approaches in cooperation to manage the said border properly (Mazon et al., 2017). States that could be referred to as failed around the world as well as failed neighbourhoods locally illustrate how hard it is for individuals and companies to succeed when the security of man is mostly at risk. Similarly, poorly application of security strategies and strategies, which affect growth and chance for normal individuals living in the continent, face the danger of changing safety and freedom into zero-sum games (Pellerin, 2013). Conclusion Effective border management is a vital safety issue in the area i.e. U.S.-Canada, which exhibited a substantial increase in cross-border violence as well as trafficking of drugs, guns, and people. If properly managed, borders could potentially increase legitimate trading and transport in the area and build the safety, growth, and prosperity between the two countries (Carter Poast, 2015). As most businesses development continues, and while the requirement of states to aid their SMEs competes in the global economy increase, states strategies, for example, those of merging and integrating border obligations become vital for expansion and growth. The application of merge policies and processes locally decreases expenses, maximizes efficacy, enhances the safety, and aids trade. By merging border policies globally into one entity or enhancing policies at border points, countries could perform together to share with each other vital data and border expenses while enhancing their performance (Carter Poast, 2015). References Arbel, E., Brenner, A. (2014). Bordering on failure: Canada-US border policy and the politics of refugee exclusion. Bigo, D. (2014). The (in) securitization practices of the three universes of EU border control: Military/Navyborder guards/policedatabase analysts. Security Dialogue, 45(3), 209-225. Atzili, B. (2012). Good fences, bad neighbors: Border fixity and international conflict. University of Chicago Press. Bradbury, S. L. (2013). The impact of security on travelers across the CanadaUS border. Journal of transport geography, 26, 139-146. Carter, D. B., Poast, P. (2015). Why do states build walls? Political economy, security, and border stability. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 61(2), 239-270. Carter, D. B. (2015). The compellence dilemma: international disputes with violent groups. International Studies Quarterly, 59(3), 461-476. Damar, H. E., Mordel, A. (2016). International banking and cross-border effects of regulation: Lessons from Canada (No. 2016-34). Bank of Canada Staff Working Paper. Carter, D. B., Goemans, H. E. (2014). The temporal dynamics of new international borders. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 31(3), 285-302. Davis, D. F., Friske, W. (2013). Defining the Soft Infrastructure of Border Crossings: A Case Study at the CanadaUS Border. American Review of Canadian Studies, 43(4), 477-493. Gibler, D. M. (2012). The territorial peace: Borders, state development, and international conflict. Cambridge University Press. Frontex (2017). Principles. European Border and Coast Guard Agency. Retrieved from https://frontex.europa.eu/training/principles/ Guo, R. (2015). Managing Across Borders. In Cross-Border Management (pp. 51-73). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Hassner, R. E., Wittenberg, J. (2015). Barriers to Entry: Who Builds Fortified Boundaries and Why?. International Security, 40(1), 157-190. Ishise, H., Matsuo, M. (2015). USCanada border effect between 1993 and 2007: smaller, less asymmetrical, and declining. Review of World Economics, 151(2), 291-308. Mazon, G., Silva, F. M., Ferreira, M. P., Serra, F. R. (2017). Knowledge motives in the cross-border acquisitions: A case research of three Brazilian multinationals. Management Research: Journal of the Iberoamerican Academy of Management, 15(1). Menjvar, C. (2014). Immigration law beyond borders: Externalizing and internalizing border controls in an era of securitization. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 10, 353-369. Pellerin, H. (2013). Border, migration and economic integration: Towards a New Political Economy of Borders. Global surveillance and policing: Borders, security, identity, 51-65. Polner, M. (2011). Coordinated border management: from theory to practice. World Customs Journal, 5(2), 49-64. PWC. (2015). The Future of Border Management: Maintaining security; facilitating prosperity Retrieved from https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/publications/documents/the-future-of-border-management.pdf Scott, J. W. (2017). Cross?Border, Transnational, and Interregional Cooperation. The International Encyclopedia of Geography. Springer, M. C., Davidson, D. (2015). Speeding up fast: Shortening waiting times for commercial freight at the CanadaUS border. Research in Transportation Business Management, 16, 74-83. Stirrup, D., Clarke, J. (2015). Straddling Boundaries: Culture and the Canada-US Border Vallet, E. (2014). Borders, fences, and walls: State of insecurity? (Border Regions Series). Yu, T. Y., Huang, P. T. (2014). Border innovation management, improved passenger services, and satisfaction acceptance. International Journal of Process Management and Benchmarking, 4(1), 89-108.

Trade Unions in Employment Relations

Abstract Trade unions play dominant roles in the enactment of employment relations in both within a country and in the international arena. Within the sphere of employment relations, states working in collaboration with the employers form and set mechanisms that see the introduction of collective bargaining approaches in matters relating to the interests of the parties represented by trade unions and the employees. The paper considers the trade union in employment relations for Australia in the light of international trade union relationships in employments.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Trade Unions in Employment Relations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Introduction Trade unions amicably regulate the existing relationships between the employers and the people they represent. They have the obligation to â€Å"lobby government in relation to variety of issues including taxation, superannuation, child care and social justice matters† (Martin Cristescu 2000, p.351). In Australia, trade unions have been part of the system of the industrial relations over a century. Martin and Cristescu, reckons that â€Å"as a representative organizations they campaign on behalf of their members to achieve the best possible working conditions and represent employees in disputes and negotiations† (p.351). Trade unions have chiefly been dependent on labor relations legal control with their strategies resting on practices and ideologies of social partnerships. â€Å"While the traditional unions were deeply compromised by their subordination to party, their integration , into state apparatus and their close collaboration with management in the work place, the unions appeared to be the movement of the future† (Clarke Ashwin 2002, p.1). Collective bargaining and adoption of the anti-unionism strategies encompasses some of the strategies that employers are adopting within the states giving s ubstantial support to such endeavors. In addition, redefinition of trade unions has received profound attention in an attempt to ensure that the new trade union face ends up being sensitive to gender and accommodate varying political views. Trade Unions in Employment Relations in Australia In Australia, redefinition of the existing trade and employment relations has occurred over centuries, with climax marked by the introduction of collective bargaining as a replacement of mandatory arbitrations in 2009. Written by Coopers, Ellem, Briggs and Broek in 2009, the article Anti-Unionism, Employer Strategy, and the Australian State is a research study conducted with the aim of examining â€Å" the principal types of employer strategies in relation to trade unions across blue-collar and white-collar, new and old economy, workplaces from the mid 1990s in Australia† (pp. 339-340). To arrive at the results, Coopers et al borrowed largely from data acquired through group and personalize d research projects based on trade onions in employment relations in Australia compiled over a decade before. Union papers, manuscripts, company papers among other sources provided both quantitative and qualitative data while not negating one on one response from south Wales elected union leaders, officers working in the industries and organizers. Upon analysis of the data, two essential findings were registered. Some, â€Å"†¦employer tactics, which seek to de-unionize, and to â€Å"substitute† for unions are not utilized in isolation from each other but are often part of a multilayered, overlapping employer strategy aimed at de-collectivizing employment relations and enhancing managerial prerogative and control† (p. 340). The researchers, in addition, found out that the state played a substantive role in fostering employer’s anti-unionism strategies.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first pap er with 15% OFF Learn More Coopers et al (2009) notes, â€Å"hardening of employer strategies towards trade unions are common trends across the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, but the proliferation of anti-union employer strategies in Australia still appears quite exceptional by international standards† (p. 339). Loud calls emanating from varying lobby groups seeking collectivization of various existing employment relationships within Australia labor market have received reciprocation. This has resulted since the Australian federal government, not only facilitate the strategies geared toward the enhancement of the noble cause, but also has over the years proactively come up to drum up support for employer strategies anti-unionization. Coopers et al (2009) identify four strategies, which the employers deploy to enhance collectivization of trade unions: â€Å"employer lookouts, individualization of bargaining, counters to organization campaigns , and use of human resource in recruitment and selection† (p. 339). Important to pinpoint is the fact that despite, the emergence of new management practices especially in the era of globalization, which prompt trade unions to undergo de-collectivization, the state spearheads majority of the Australia trade unions and employer relationships with reconfigurations. According to Coopers et al (2009), â€Å"legislative and non-legislative interventions, which create opportunities, incentives and pressures for firms to adopt anti-union strategies† (p. 340) have promptly done this. Coopers et al however, suggests a joining of hands between the government and employers to act on passive trade union organization. It is worth appreciating the fact that trade unions have the capacity to object some of the policies laid out to regulate the relationships between the individuals they represent and employers for the establishment of a collective bargaining ground, especially in accor dance with international revitalization of trade unions. However, a substantive environment for addressing issues afflicting both sides must be in place. Nevertheless, the employers and the state have an amicable obligation to set out the foundation and the subsequent path for collective bargaining. The â€Å"hardening of employer strategies towards trade unions are pervasive trends across the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and particularly in Australia; a country once regarded as a progressive, union-friendly â€Å"social laboratory† (Coopers et al, 2009, p. 358). The existence of dwindled trade union densities as discussed by Coopers et al has the repercussions of shifting and re-shaping the employment relationships.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Trade Unions in Employment Relations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Trade unions play significant roles in improving employments re lation all over the world. The renewal of trade unions in Australia with the aim of changing the sociopolitical working and business environment has remained one of the central challenges for trade union leaders in this country. This follows because the reform strategies have to accommodate diverse issues such as legislative change, gender, increase in part-time work, and environmental concerns. Written by Dawson and Michael in 2009, Cultural Issues in Organizational Change: The Case of the Australian Services Union is a research article conducted on ‘Australian Services union (ASU)’ with the aim of â€Å"examining legislative change, gender, and challenges of trade unions renewal† (p. 19). The research identifies the main challenges faced by trade unions in Australia as they implement various employment relation policies and practices. The research conducted using extensive study of the structure of trade unions showed the objectives that the trade unions sought to achieve. The study, done on the diverse changes related to trade union enacted in this country served to determine their impact to the employment relationships in Australia. Dawson and Michael expounds on the organization of trade unions and challenges they face when addressing the issues of renewal and employment relations. Employment in Australia has undergone tremendous changed mainly contributed by the growth of part-time employment strategies. The ‘Australian Services union (ASU)’ is an amalgamated organization which operates using semi-autonomous branches with the head office situated in Melbourne and a smaller union’s national office located in Sydney. Trade unions focus on advocating for workers rights through collective bargaining and use of other means like boycotts and strikes. In their research, Dawson and Michael examine experiences of a specific union, which is the Australian Services Union (ASU). This union covers a wide range of Australian org anizations with massive membership supporting distinct political perspectives. The union draws most of its membership from employment areas that have undergone remarkable growth in utilization of part-time work. Increase in the number of women members has sparked gender and political issues that result in questioning of the traditionalist approaches to union’s change and strategy. As Dawson and Michael (2009) reckons, â€Å"Gender issues, amalgamations, increase in part time employment, legislative change, competing political views and agendas, culture and history of trade unions are the factors that influence uptake and development of employment relations† (p. 20). The methods used during this research included making contacts or conducting interviews with the officials of this union so as to get relevant materials on various changes and employment relations facing ASU. Fieldwork played a crucial role of gathering relevant information concerning ASU union and the chal lenges it is facing in its quest for improved employment relations. As Dawson and Michael (2009) comments, â€Å"†¦the execution of the main research fieldwork for this study took place in South Australia from November 1998 to November 2001† (p. 25). In addition, the research employed discussions with union administrators. The researchers also attended social events, branch barbecues, and work dinners to socialize with all stakeholders and gather relevant information.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Information garnered from this research shows employment relations are undergoing many changes due to current gender, cultural, and legislative changes. As Dawson and Michael (2009) postulates, â€Å"the ASU union made conscious decisions recruit more women officials and members in an attempt to reposition itself as an organization that is women-oriented† (p. 28). This reinvention stood out as paramount for the survival of this union. However, there are many barriers to this change in employment relations especially form branches which are male bastion branches from early times. These findings showed that practices and policies that limit execution of new policies within the organizations maintain cultural reluctance to union changes. The many changes experienced in workplaces such as shifts in employment patterns and new legislations have affected employment relation, as many employees show signs of frustration, fatigue, and dissatisfaction with the union’s management . Although there is an increase in number of union members in Australia, density levels of unions, as well as involvement of employment relations continue to decrease. Dawson and Michael (2009) argue that, â€Å"the legislative change introduced by Howard Government in Australia further weakened employee representation system and for instance, their abilities to question the firing and hiring practices of the management† (p. 37). This has made achievement of unions’ objectives in fighting for the employee’s rights hard and cumbersome. It appears that the trade unions movements have reached critical junctures where collective bargaining forms are constrained by socioeconomic changes as well as legislative changes. Trade Unions and Employment in the International Arena The density of trade unions has been declining all over the world. This has affected employment relations in many countries. Authored by Devinatz in 2010, Trade Unionism under Globalization: The Dea th of Voluntarism and the Trend to Politics is a research study conducted with the aim of examining â€Å"How the United States’ trade unions have declined and the reasons why trade union voluntarism has died and in turn trade unions have turned to politics† (pp. 16-32). The methods employed by Devinatz in his unique study included using collected data, studying journals written by other researchers, and field study through questionnaires and interviews. Trade unions in the United States have failed to use collective bargaining and they have turned to national politics as a tool to attain their desired objectives. As Devinatz (2011) reckons, â€Å"The dramatic decline experienced in the United States’ trade union density has resulted in a negative impact of the U.S. labor by discouraging the usage of strikes as economic weapons to achieve objectives of the trade unions and undermining collective say and bargaining power† (p. 16). This contribution has res ulted from the increased competition witnessed in the private markets in the United States because of the deregulation and implementation of advanced technology, and weakening of labor and trade barriers. Devinatz utilizes historical data in examining how the U.S trade unions have discussed employment relations form early 1930s. For instance, Devinatz (2011) argues, â€Å"The Social Security Act (1935) resulted in many changes in labor laws in United States† (p. 19). Labor laws continued to undergo many changes through distinct laws introduced and enacted by the government with collaboration with trade unions. These legislations aimed at improving the working condition as well as improving living standards of the workers through better wages and job security. As Devinatz (2011) reckons, â€Å"the Employment Act of 1946, which based on ‘Keynesian fiscal policy’, aided in increasing the federal minimum wage which improved living standards of the workers† (p. 20). Various bodies such as ‘American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) were established in order to reverse the declining density of private sector trade unions. These bodies received overwhelming support in their quest to revive the private sector. The findings of this research postulate that the voluntarism philosophy where employees depend on trade unions to achieve work gains that will make their living standards better using collective bargaining and other economic struggle methods such as boycotts and strikes is declining in the United States. Both public and private workers unions utilize extensive political involvement to air their views and achieve their objectives. In the subsequent years, trade unions in United States were able to defend their conquests such as, â€Å"maintaining a work day of eight hours, preventing wages reductions on various federal contracts, reducing work discrimination, and fastening legislation of occupatio nal safety (Devinatz 2011, p.21). Trade unions were also involved in other activities such as obtaining unpaid wages and salaries through the use of the legal system, exposing unfair work treatment and harsh conditions, lobbying for enacting of new legislations or amending of existing laws aimed at improving working conditions, organizing employees to struggle for their rights. Contribution of the Three Articles The three articles used in the paper significantly contribute to the understanding of the trade unions. They further expound on the duties of trade unions. Trade unions play vital roles in the improvement of employment relations all over the world. The articles help us to understand objectives of trade unions in a better way. Trade unions established play a significant role of fighting for workers rights and they use different methods to achieve this. The most indispensable tool used by trade unions in achieving their objectives is collective bargaining where they bargain wi th employers on behalf of all workers. Strikes and boycotts employed serve to achieve the unions’ objectives thus improving working condition of the employees and achieving better wages. In addition, the articles give us insight on the challenges faced by the trade unions in their conquest to fulfill their objectives. The legislations enacted by governments all over the world have contributed to the witnessed profound changes in the employment field mainly contributed by. The increase in part-time jobs has also posed a great challenge to trade union as they advocate for improved employment relations. Gender changes yet form another challenge where women demand equal chances with men. The articles provide detailed and crucial recommendations that trade unions can utilize to overcome the challenges they are facing. Dawson and Michael (2009) recommend that, â€Å"trade unions should employ strategic actions such as aligning new agendas for internal changes, which are capable of offsetting traditional custom inertia in adopting flexible and agile perspective† (p. 38). For trade unions to develop new policies, which union members can easily identify with and use them to educate younger employees on the history and importance of trade unions, as well as benefits of collective representation. This recommendation will aid in renewing the unionism all over the world. Conclusion It is imperative to have improved employment relations in a country to improve welfare of all workers. Better working conditions reduce fatigue and stresses experienced by the employees. In addition, the rate to employees’ turnover will increase if the employees adopt better employment relations. The Trade unions play critical roles in ensuring excellent working conditions for all employees working in different industries. With appropriate legislation enactements, trade unions are conferred with the ability to achieve their objectives by incorporating the strategies of colle ctive bargaining where they bargain with employers on behalf of all workers. As a repercussion, the employee’s disputes with the employers, redundancy issues and resolution of unfair dismissal issues receive a solid platform for their address. On the other hand, the paper suggests that trade unions deserve to develop new policies, which union members can easily identify with and use them to educate younger employees on the history and importance of trade unions, as well as benefits of collective representation. References Clarke, S., Ashwin, S., 2002. Russian Trade Unions and Industrial Relations in Transition. New York: Palgrave. Coopers, R., Ellem, B., Briggs, C., Broek, V., 2009. Anti-Unonnism, Employer Strategy and the Australian State, 1996-2005. Labor Studies Journal, 34(3), pp. 339-361. Dawson, P., Michael, Z., 2009. Cultural Issues in Organizational Change: The Case of the Australian Services Union. Employment Relations Record, 9 (1), pp. 19-41. Devinatz, G., 2011. U.S. Trade Unionism under Globalization: The Death of Voluntarism and the Trend to Politics? Labor Law Journal, 62 (1), pp.16-29. Martin, R., Cristescu, A., 2000. Industrial Relations in Central and Eastern Europe in 199: Patterns of Protest. Industrial Relations Journal, 31 (4), pp. 345-362. This essay on Trade Unions in Employment Relations was written and submitted by user Salvatore E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

European Challenges to the Muslim World essays

European Challenges to the Muslim World essays European Challenges to the Muslim World Religion has always played an important role in European society; Islam has usually been the major religion. It was no different in the 1700s and 1800s. During this time, reforms were formed to revolt against the government. These reforms most often stressed religious piety and obedience to strict rules of behavior. During these reforms, the government used their education against the people, by making treaties that gave them favorable rights to trade. Other than religion, nationalism has always been an importance and usually a negative. Nationalism has caused much uproar and there was no exception in the Ottoman Empire. During the same time as the religious conflict in Europe, the Ottoman Empire was struck with these uproars. Although the empire was able to suppress these revolts, Britain, France, and Russia soon saw a chance to gain more power and land, by attacking the old, weakened empire. France obtained Algeria in the 1830s and now wanted more land. Britain obtained Egypt during the revolts and soon placed Egypt under a protectorate. With Egypt being a protectorate, it helped modernize Egypt. With the help of Muhammad Ali, often called the father of modern Egypt, Egypt soon had improved taxes, a reorganized landholding, and he increased the farm output. Now that the farms were outputting, Ferdinand de Lesseps made it much easier to trade by building the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal was a very tiring and strenuous job, that took quite a long time. It was a Canal that shortened the journey from Europe to South and East Asia. This greatly improved trading and brought in more money at the same time. This shows how much the world powers have changed since they were created a long time ago. Few have had the opportunity to be extremely powerful, while many others have felt defeat. The Ottoman Empire has felt both; they were powerf...

Quiz 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Quiz 2 - Assignment Example It is a two sided structure which encompasses criminal trial courts that involves the prosecution being against the defense. Fairness is achieved when an effective petitioner is able to convince the jury or judge that their view of the case is the right one (Boyack, Connor 2011). It tends to test the validity of arguments and this helps in discovering the truth as the adversaries are are offered equal opportunities to air their arguments for their case and to critically questioning the opponents arguments mainly via witnesses. The adversarial system is accepted by many communities since it appears to be fair and a sensible method of resolving conflicts or disputes as it satisfies the idea of fair play in a community (Tarakson, Stella 2004). The law can be sourced from precedents, precedents is sourcing laws from previously made judgments that is judgment passed by some of the intellectuals jurists ,it is normally used when there is no legislature in a particular situation where changing conditions arises. Statutory interpretation-it involves a process of ascertaining expressions and meanings of letters by courts, it involves constructing or interpretation, as for interpretation the court seeks to ascertain meanings of particular legislations and it is through the interpretations that the judiciary comes up with the law. Preparatory works-the processes that lead to legislation are subsequently used as guidelines on how laws are interpreted and comprehend acts of legislations and this takes place in some legal cultures (Hein, Paul, Garcia & Clair

Aerobic capacity test Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Aerobic capacity test - Essay Example Maximal oxygen uptake is also known as maximal oxygen consumption, maximal aerobic power, aerobic capacity, or VO2 max. The maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) is a measure of a person's capacity to take in and utilise oxygen during exercise. A subject with a greater VO2 max value will be more likely to sustain high intensity exercise for a longer period. Theoretically, subjects with greater VO2 max values possess greater concentrations of hemoglobin in the blood, thus enabling them to utilise more oxygen during intense exercise (McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 2001; Mierke, 2003). However, there are several factors that may have an affect on maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max). These factors include mode of exercise (i.e., treadmill exercise, cycle ergometry, arm crank, swimming, or bench stepping), heredity, gender, age, body size and composition, and state of training (McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 2001; Mierke, 2003).Aerobic capacity is measured in the laboratory using a graded exercise test du ring which the rate of oxygen uptake is measured continually using sophisticated equipment. A graded exercise test is a test typically administered on a treadmill or cycle ergometer in which the intensity of exercise is increasingly increased. The rate of aerobic metabolism and oxygen uptake increases as intensity of exercise increases up to the point at which the aerobic capacity is reached. At this point, even though the exercise intensity can be increased, the oxygen uptake no longer increases proportionally, and there is a plateau in the relation of the rate of oxygen uptake to work rate (exercise intensity).The rate of oxygen uptake at the plateau is aerobic capacity (Cureton and Plowman, n.d.). The main disadvantage of this type of test is that is technically demanding, requiring costly equipment and highly-trained technicians.Furthermore, it is time consuming; a test requires about 30 minutes and only one subject can be tested at any given time. Thus, the direct measurement of aerobic capacity is not possible or practical for most field settings, such as schools where large numbers of people must be tested (Cureton and Plowman, n.d.). The Bruce Treadmill Test is one of the most popular laboratory treadmill test protocols used in obtaining VO2 max measurements. The test consists of seven 3-minute stages, in which most subjects are able to walk the first three stages. During each stage, a set percent treadmill grade and speed is obtained. During the test, the subjects' breathing and heart rates are monitored through the use of respiratory and metabolic/gas equipment along with heart rate monitors. Subjects' heart rates are recorded every minute while the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) is recorded every three minutes. Validity correlation coefficients of .90 and .91 have been reported between VO2 max and the 12 min run. A lower correlation has been reported between VO2 max and the 1.5 Mile Run (-.74). The test-retest reliability of maximal oxygen consumption tests is high (i.e., .95 - .99) (Mierke, 2003).The main advantage of this test is that it is a direct measurement of maximal oxygen consumption. However, ther e are quite a few disadvantages with this test including degree of difficulty, cost and sensitivity of equipment, and the need for highly-trained te

Obesity: History, BMI Classification, Determinants and Effects

Obesity: History, BMI Classification, Determinants and Effects OBESITY Obesity is fast becoming a serious epidemic in the United States due partly to eating habits and physical inactivity amongst Americans. According to the Centre for Disease Control, Seventy-three percent of adults and 43 percent of all children in the United States are overweight or obese. Among African-Americans 20 years and over, more than two-thirds are overweight or obese (Gaines, 2010). Generally, the rate of overweight and obesity are higher for African-American and Hispanic women than Caucasian women, higher in the south and Midwest and increases with age (Ogden et al., 2014; Gregg et al., 2009; Sherry et al., 2010). According to the World Health Organization, body mass index (BMI) of an obese person has a value greater than or equal to thirty. Type 2 diabetes and high blood pressure are two diseases that ultimately affect African Americans and this is predominantly caused by an increase in weight as those extra pounds predisposes a person to these diseases (Gaines, 2010). Obes ity is one of the primary risk factor for heart diseases, diabetes and a number of cancers and these are major causes of death in American today. The health implication of obesity and the complications associated with it is increasingly becoming more detrimental than cigarette smoking and has therefore become one of the major preventable causes of death worldwide. This investigation paper focuses on the brief history of obesity; this will take obesity from its discovery over 2000 years to this present day. An understanding of the BMI classification, aetiological determinants, pathophysiology and health effects is important if obesity prevalence will be curtailed. Furthermore, the socio economic impact of obesity management on the United States economy will be looked into. Finally, its treatment options, prevention and trends of the disease will be discussed. HISTORY OF OBESITY The Ancient Greeks were the first to acknowledge obesity as a health disorder and this was further recognized by the Ancient Egyptians in a similar way. According to Hippocrates, corpulence is not only a disease itself, but the harbinger of other diseases (Haslam & James, 2005). Hippocrates which was the Ancient Greek Father of Western medicine acknowledged obesity in his work and details of various diseases including diabetes was first given by him. Another Indian surgeon Sushruta, also discovered the association between obesity, diabetes and heart diseases and he was the first person to find out the significant signs, symptoms, causes and health implications. In the Ancient days, man always strived for food due to scarcity or famine and this resulted in obesity being regarded as a sign of wealth and good fortune in the middle age. However, all this changed when the scientific society of the 20th century revealed the medical implications of obesity (Caballero B., 2007) With the inception of the industrial revolution, body size and strength of soldiers and workers became pertinent as this was attributed to the military and economic power of Nations (Caballero, 2007). The increase in the average body mass index from underweight to the normal on the BMI charts played an important role in the development of industrialized societies (Caballero, 2007).   Therefore in the 19th century, there was an increase in weight and height generally. However, during the 20th century, the genetic potentials for height was reached and this resulted to weight increasing more than height in this century and thus resulted in the average increase in BMI (Caballero, 2007). In human evolution, for the first time, the number of adults with excess weight exceeded the number of those who were underweight which further led to obesity (Caballero, 2007). The perceptions of the public as regards healthy body weight varied from those regarded as normal in the western society, but this perception was changed in the beginning of the 20th century. There was a reduction in the weight seen as normal since 1920s and this was evident by the 2% increase in average height of the Miss America pageant winners and a 12% decrease in weight between year 1922 and 1999 (Rubinstein & Caballero, 2000). Also, the perception of most people as regards healthy weight has changed, for example in Britain the weight at which people regarded themselves to be overweight was considerably higher in 2007 than in 1999 (Johnson & Wardle, 2008). Obesity is still regarded as an indication of wealth and well-being in many parts of Africa and this has become more widespread since the HIV epidemic began (Haslam & James, 2005). BODY MASS INDEX (BMI) CLASSIFICATION According to the World Health Organization, Body Mass Index (BMI) is a simple index of weight-for-height that is commonly used to classify underweight, normal weight, overweight and obesity in adults. It is defined as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in metres (kg/m2) (W.H.O. 2004). For example, an adult who weighs 60kg and whose height is 1.65m will have a BMI of 22.0. BMI = 60 kg / (1.65 m2) = 60 / 2.72 = 22.04 LEAN BODY MASS Lean Body Mass is a component of body composition, it is calculated by subtracting body fat weight from total body weight. Total body weight is lean plus fat. In equations: LBM = BW − BF Lean Body Mass equals Body Weight minus Body Fat LBM + BF = BW Lean Body Mass plus Body Fat equals Body Weight Lean Body Weight (men) = (1.10 x Weight(kg)) 128 ( Weight2/(100 x Height(m))2) Lean Body Weight (women) = (1.07 x Weight(kg)) 148 ( Weight2/(100 x Height(m))2) Ideal Body Weight (men) = 50 + 2.3 ( Height(in) 60 ) Ideal Body Weight (women) = 45.5 + 2.3 ( Height(in) 60 ) Body Mass Index = Weight(kg) / Height(m)2 The table below further explains the classification of BMI in relation to the weight and height of an individual. Table 1: The International Classification of adult underweight, overweight and obesity according to BMI Source: Adapted from WHO, 1995, WHO, 2000 and WHO 2004. BMI values are age dependent and are the same for both males and females (WHO, 2000). The health risks associated with increasing BMI are many and the interpretation of BMI values in relation to risk may vary for different populations in different geographical locations (WHO, 2004). AETIOLOGY DETERMINANTS OF OBESITY Obesity is a heterogeneous group of conditions with numerous causes, it is not merely a single disorder and it is predominantly expressed phenotypically (Susan A.J, 1997). Obesity is hereditary, but the genetic component does not follow simple Mendelian principles and the effect of the genotype on the aetiology of obesity may be decreased or increased by factors that are non-genetic (Susan A.J, 1997). Several factors determine the body weight, and these are interactions of genetic, environmental and psychosocial factors which are in relation to the amount of energy consumed and the amount of energy expended and the resulting acting through the physiological mediators Table 1: The International Classification of adult underweight, overweight and obesity according to BMI of energy intake and energy expenditure and the resulting equilibrium between both (Susan A.J, 1997). ENDOCRINE AND HYPOTHALAMIC DISORDERS Certain endocrinological disorders may lead to obesity, but this applies to a very small percentage of the total number of cases (Susan A.J, 1997). The endocrinological determinants of obesity have been reviewed recently (Bouchard C., Perusse L., Leblanc C., Tremblay A, & Theriault, 1988). The single disorder that causes obesity in this group is hypothyroidism in which increased weight occurs largely as a result of reduced energy expenditure (Susan A.J, 1997). Other endocrinological factors contributing to obesity include Cushing’s syndrome and disorders of corticosteroid metabolism, where weight gain is typically accompanied by a distinctive prototype of fat deposition in the trunk, sex hormone disorders including hypogonadism in men and ovariectomy in women, insulinoma and growth hormone deficiency (Susan A.J, 1997). The key causes of weight gain in these cases are the amount of energy intake. Certain hypothalamic tumors or damage to the hypothalamic part of the brain as a result of excessive exposure to radiation, infectious agents or head trauma can also lead to obesity with defect in appetite control and hyperphagia (Susan A.J, 1997). A hypothalamic disorder is also believed to be the foundation of a number of congenital abnormalities which could also result in obesity, e.g. Prader-Willi syndrome, which is an abnormality that could be a primary cause of obesity (Susan A.J, 1997). GENETIC INFLUENCE At a population level, the genetic influence of obesity is expressed in terms of heritability (Susan A.J, 1997). This refers to the percentage of the total difference in a character which is attributable to genetic factors (Susan A.J, 1997). The heritability of obesity may be considered either in terms of the total fatness of an individual or the distribution of body fat in an individual (Susan A.J, 1997). Several discoveries have been made over the years regarding the influence of genetics on chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease and obesity (R. C. Whitaker, J.A. Wright, M.S. Pepe, K.D. Seidel, &W.H. Dietz., 1997). Recent reports indicate that at least 32 genes contribute to common forms of obesity. Many of these genes are thought to be related to the development of obesity through the deregulation metabolic hormones in the body (Susan A J, 1997).   The obesity related variant in the fat mass and obesity-associated protein also known as alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase FTO, has aroused interest in pediatrics due to its relationship with increased weight and ponderal index at 2 weeks of age (A. Lopez-Bermejo, C.J. Petry, M. Diaz, et al., 2008). FTO is located on the long arm of the chromosome 16 and is expressed in the brain, specifically the hypothalamic nuclei (Khung E. Rhee et al. 2012). Those who are homogenous for the at-risk allele have been found to be 3kg heavier than those who do not have the allele (T.M. Frayling, N. J. Timpson, M. N. Weedon et al. 2007). This weight gain is likely due to the gene’s involvement in the regulation of energy intake (Khung E. Rhee et al. 2012). According to recent studies, individuals carrying the at-risk allele prefer dense energy foods (J.E Cecil, R. Tavendale, P. Watt, M. M. Hetherington, & C.N.A Palmer, 2008), have reduced feeling of satiety (J. Wardle, S. Carnell, C.M.A. Haworth, I.S. Farooqi, S. O’Rahilly, & R. Plomin, 2008), display loss of control over eating (M. Tanofsky-Kraff, J.C. Han, K. Anandalingam et al. 2009), consume more fat and calories (even after adjusting for BMI) (N. J. Timpson, P.M. Emmett, T.M. Frayling, et al. 2008) and display a greater tendency towards consuming palatable foods after eating a meal (J. Wardle, C.Llewellyn, S. Sanderson, & R. Plomin, 2009). Therefore, FTO isn’t associated with energy expenditure, but it increases the susceptibility of individuals to higher calorie consumption and decreased satisfaction. A meta- analysis of 45 studies found that adults who were physically active attenuate the odds of obesity associated with FTO by almost 30% (T.O. Kilpelainen, L. Qi, S. Brage, et al. 2011). Thus carrying a gene for obesity does not necessarily predestine one to be obese (D. Meyre, K. Proulx, H. Kawagoe-Takaki et al. 2010), but rather increases the risk in the face of an obesogenic environment (Khung E. Rhee et al. 2012). Numerous studies in different ethnic groups suggest that the familial correlation in the total body fatness, expressed as body mass index, (BMI; kg/m2) from parent to offspring is about 0.2 and for sibling-sibling relationships about 0.25 (Bouchard C, Perusse L, Leblanc C, Tremblay A, Theriault G. 1988). As would be expected, studies of twins show a much higher concentration, particularly in monozygotic pairs (Susan A.J, 1997). However, these findings do not segregate the independent effects of genetic transmission and a shared environment (Susan A.J, 1997). Further studies of twins reared apart attribute 50-70% of the difference in BMI in later life to genetic factors (Stunkard A, Harris J, Pedersen N, McClearn G. 1990). Adoption studies, where an individual is compared both to their biological parent and their adopted parents, have also demonstrated the importance of genetic influences (Susan A.J, 1997). There is a strong relationship between the BMI of the adoptee and their biological parents across the entire range of fatness, but no relationship between the adoptee and their adoptive parents (Stunkard A, Sorensen T, Hanis C. et al. 1986). Studies of fat distribution have considered both the ratio of subcutaneous to total fat mass and the distribution of subcutaneous fat in the trunk relative to the limbs (Susan A.J, 1997). Data from the Quebec Family Study, suggest that the size of the internal fat stores are more strongly influenced by genetic factors than subcutaneous depots (Bouchard C., Perusse L., Leblanc C., Tremblay A, Theriault, 1988). Familial clustering suggests that genetic factors may account for 37% of the variance in the trunk to extremity skin fold thickness ratio (Rice T, Bouchard C, Perusse L, Rao D. 1995). These combined evidence from these genetic analysis suggests that obesity is a polygenic disorder and that a considerable proportion of the variance is non-additive (Susan A.J, 1997). This would explain the higher correlations between siblings than those between parent and offspring, and the 2-fold greater correlation between monozygotic than dizygotic twins (Susan A.J, 1997). These genetic influences seem to operate through susceptible genes; the occurrence of the gene increases the risk of developing a characteristic but not essential for its expression nor is it, in itself, sufficient to explain the development of the disease (Susan A.J, 1997). Unlike animal models, where a number of single genes can lead to obesity, no human obesity gene has yet been characterized, but the heterogeneous nature of human obesity does not preclude the identification of small number of individuals with a single defect which leads to obesity (Susan A.J, 1997). In man, a number of genetically determined conditions result in excess body weight or fatness (e.g Prader-Willi syndrome or Bardet-Biedl syndrome), but these account for only a very small proportion of the obese population (Susan A.J, 1997). PHYSIOLOGICAL MEDIATORS Energy expenditure Studies in animals have postulated that at the time of overfeeding, a remarkable increase in metabolic rate may deplete the excess energy thus reducing the rate of weight gain below theoretical values (Rothwell N., Stock M., 1983). Genetically obese animals tend to gain more weight than their lean controls even when they are pair-fed, thus implying a greater metabolic rate (Thurby P., Trayhurn P., 1979). One possible explanation for this effect is the decrease in diet-induced thermogenesis which is lessened in animal models of obesity due to a decrease in the sympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue (Rothwell N., Stock M., 1983). These unequivocal effects on energy expenditure in obese animals contrast with the paucity of evidence in humans (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Susan A.J (1997) stated that in obese humans, there have been constant reports of abnormally low energy intake which indirectly imply that there must be a defect in energy expenditure. There are three basic elements to energy expenditure which have each been the focus of extensive research. Basal Metabolic Rate In 1997, Susan A Jebb defined basal or resting metabolic rate as the energy expended by an individual at rest, following an overnight fast and at a comfortable environmental temperature in the thermo neutral range. Several studies of basal metabolic rate have concluded that obese subjects have a higher BMR compared to their lean counterparts. Researchers like Swinburn B. & Ravussin E, reported that approximately 80% of the inter- individual variance in BMR can be accounted for by age, fat-free mass, fat mass and gender. Nevertheless, this still gives room for some likelihood that inter-individual difference in BMR which may influence individuals with a relatively low BMR to become obese (Susan A. Jebb, 1997). Diet induced thermogenesis A number of studies have suggested that the post-prandial increase in energy expenditure is attenuated in obese subjects, perhaps due to decreased Sympathetic Nervous System activity (Astrup A. 1996). Similar effects have also been demonstrated in the post-obese. However this is not a consistent finding, even among studies from the same laboratory. A recent review by Ravussin E. & Swinburn B. (1993) identified 28 studies in favour of a defect in thermogenesis in humans and 17 against. However, since thermogenesis accounts for only a fraction of total energy expenditure (approximately 10%), the potential for a significant effect on total energy expenditure is insufficient (Susan A. Jebb 1997). Physical activity The most significant component of energy expenditure is physical activity which may represent 20-50% of total energy expenditure. Studies of fidgeting movements in Pima Indians within a whole-body calorimeter have shown significant inter-individual variations in the daily energy cost of these actions from 400-3000 kJ/day, with low levels predictive of subsequent weight gain at least in males but not females (Zurlo F., Ferraro R., Fontvielle A. et. al. 1988). However, in free-living conditions, the freedom to undertake conscious physical activity or exercise increases the inter-individual variability even further (Susan A Jebb). Research in this area has been hampered by imprecision in the methods to measure physical activities which have included various actometers, heart rate monitoring, activity diaries and direct observation (Susan A. Jebb, 1997). The energy requirements of an individual encompass the summation of basal expenditure, thermogenesis and physical activity. A whole-body calorimeter can be used to measure the total energy expenditure of an individual. The analysis of total energy expenditure in 319 obese subjects clearly demonstrates a significant increase in energy expenditure with increasing body weight such that individuals with a BMI in excess of 35 kg/m2 have energy expenditure approximately 30% higher than those with BMI less than 25 kg/m2 (Susan A Jebb, 1997). The outstanding difficulty with these studies , as stated by Susan A. Jebb in 1997 is that the increase in energy expenditure seen in obese subjects as a result of their increased body size may mask pre-existing metabolic defects in the pre-obese state which exposes the individual to excessive weight gain. However, in experimental overfeeding researches, there is no remarkable difference in the degree of weight gain between lean and obese subjects when matched for their excess energy intake (Diaz E. Prentice A. M et. al. 1992).   Studies of total energy expenditure in post-obese subjects have not arrived at a definite conclusion; some studies show no difference in energy expenditure in the post-obese relative to never-obese controls (Goldberg G.R., et. al. 1991), whilst others show a modest suppression of energy expenditure (Geissler C. Miller D., Shah M. 1987). In general, there is little evidence to support the hypothesis that human obesity may be due to a specific defect in energy expenditure in predisposed individuals (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Susan A Jebb further stated that advocates of a metabolic basis to obesity, argue that only very small differences in energy expenditure are neccessary to produce significant weight gain over many years, and this difference may be lower than the limits of precision of even the most advanced methodology. Energy Intake The failure to identify a defect in the metabolic control of energy expenditure and the contrary observation of high levels of energy expenditure, and the contrary observation of high levels of energy expenditure in obese subjects has led to a focus on food intake to explain the aetiology of obesity (Susan A Jebb, 1997). The increase in energy expenditure associated with the development of obesity should automatically help to prevent continued weight gain; hence the failure of this auto-regulatory system suggests that there must be a considerable error in the regulation of food intake (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Furthermore, habitually lean individuals are able to regulate intake to match energy requirements over a wide range of energy requirements yet those who become obese seem unable to achieve this balance (Susan A Jebb, 1997).   Breakthrough in discerning the role of energy intake in the aetiology of obesity has been critically disconcerted by under-reporting which is now largely recognized as a feature of obesity (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Comparisons of energy intake and energy expenditure indicate consistent shortfalls in self-reported intake, averaging approximately 30% of energy requirements in obese subjects (Prentice A.M., Black A.E., Coward W.A., 1986; Lichtman S., Pisarska K., Berman E., et al., 1993). This phenomenon also extends to post-obese subjects and to others who may be very weight conscious (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Under-reporting may be cause by several factors and it is natural for individuals to change their eating pattern when they are to record their food intake.   This is usually associated with a reduction in intake as subjects consciously or sub-consciously adopt a self-imposed ‘diet’. (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Therefore they might give accurate results about their intake for that duration, but it may not be a true representation of their habitual pattern. Forgetfulness, underestimation of meal size and lack of basic knowledge of food consumption can also lead to under-reporting. Although, it is possible to have falsification and fabrication of dietary records, there are also instances of self-deception or deliberate manipulation of dietary records. Recent research into the appetite control system by Blundell J.; Bouchard C., Bray G. (1996), has identified a network of synchronous interactions which govern eating behavior. These effects are mediated through the central nervous system particularly the hypothalamus, where a number of neuropeptides appear to regulate feeding behavior via effects on hunger and satiety (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Laboratory studies of feeding behavior by Spiegel T., et al., in 1989, proposed that, following a convert energy preload, obese subject may be less able to accurately compensate for the energy content of the preload at a subsequent meal than lean subjects. However, these studies are usually of short duration in laboratory settings and may not accurately reflect eating behavior in a naturalistic setting, where knowledge of foods consumed and conditioned learning may invoke other regulatory processes (Susan A Jebb, 1997). There is also significant evidence that the individual macronutrients (protein, fat, carbohydrate and alcohol) have different influences on eating behavior, majorly due to their effects on satiety (Stubbs R., 1995). Experimental studies of manipulated foods and retrospective analyses of dietary records suggest that protein is the most satiating (DeCastro J., 1987; Hill A., Blundell J., 1990). Carbohydrate is also an efficient inhibitor of later food consumption, at least in the short terms, meal-to-meal context (Rolls B., et al. 1994). Fat seems to have a satiating capacity (Lawton C., Burley V., 1993). Fat hyperphagia occurs during a single meal due to subjects overeating high fat foods and is also known as passive over consumption. In 1994, Poppitt S., stated that fat has two times the energy per gram of carbohydrate or protein which may be due to the level of energy density and not necessarily a characteristic of dietary fat. Appetite is said to be stimulated by alcohol and according to DeCastro J & Orozco (1990), in free living circumstances, alcohol consumption with meals is associated with higher energy intakes, but this may also reflect that alcohol is more likely to be consumed on special occasions which in themselves are associated with increased food intake. Basically, taste preference can have an effect on the amount of food consumed and the kind of food.   The individual preference for certain meals would make them more likely to consume more of that meal. Therefore, sensory preferences plays a role on energy balance since is it associated with energy intake. According to Witherley S, Pangborn R & Stern J (1980), several reports of sensory preferences for particular food groups in association with obesity, but inter-subject variability is so great as to obscure any underlying obese-lean differences. The relationship between sensory preference for fat versus sugar and BMI was pinpointed by Drewnowski in 1992. Obese women had preference for foods with high fat to sugar ratio while women with low BMI had preference for high sugar to fat ratio, therefore increase in weight is closely related to increase for fatty foods. Eating frequency has effect on weight gain, because people who eat several small meals at intervals have less weight than those that eat fewer meals in larger quantity and therefore large quantity of food consumed at a time may be a risk factor for obesity, however, studies as regards this, showed no remarkable relationship (Bellisle F, McDevitt R, Prentice A.M. 1997). Research in this area is contradicted by under-reporting of food consumption in obese subjects and by post-hoc variations in eating patterns as a result of obesity and efforts to control weight (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Eating frequency in obese subjects is however an unreliable blueprint to the eating patterns involved in the aetiology of obesity (Susan A Jebb, 1997). ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE Obesogenic environment which was first coined in the 1990s, in a bid to explain the present obesity epidermic. According to King D (2007), obesogenic environment is the sum of the influences that the surroundings, opportunities or conditions of life have on promoting obesity in individuals and populations. This encompasses the cultural, social and infrastructural conditions that affect the ability of a person to embrace a healthy lifestyle. Individuals in a population respond to unhealthy environment and the more urbanized the environment, the more individuals are pressurized to adopt unhealthy habits. The pressure from the surrounding makes it difficult for individuals to change their lifestyle and practice healthy habits when the environment itself is unhealthy. Environmental factors may have a critical effect in the development of obesity by unmasking genetic or metabolic susceptibilities (Susan A.J, 1997). Environmental influences on diet involve a wide range of factors including accessibility to food and high calorie drinks. Eating habits are commonly influenced by the availability and accessibility of unhealthy food, which is an important consideration in the effect on obesity. Studies in the United States recommend that the availability of high quality, affordable ‘healthy’ food is limited for people who reside in low-income communities and such scarcity is associated with unhealthy diet and obesity (White 2007) .However despite several epidemiological studies that shows environmental influences play an important role in the aetiology of obesity, it is a fact that some people within the same ‘unhealthy environment’ still managed to maintain a healthy weight (Susan A.J, 1997). PSYCHO-SOCIAL INFLUENCES Food is sometimes used as a coping mechanism by individuals with weight issues, especially when they are unhappy, nervous, stressed, bored and depressed. In many obese individuals there seems to be a perpetual cycle of mood disturbance, overeating, and weight gain (Jennifer C. Collins & Jon E. Bentz 2009). When they feel frustrated, they rely on food for comfort, even though this coping mechanism may pacify their mood, the resultant weight gain that results may cause a dysphoric mood due to their inability to control their stress (Jennifer C. Collins & Jon E. Bentz, 2009). Eventually a guilty feeling may restart the cycle and might steer a habitual pattern of eating food to get comfort. This habitual pattern is specifically significant if there is a genetic risk factor for obesity or an ‘obesogenic’ environment where foods high in calorie & density are readily accessible and sedentary lifestyle is present. Regrettably, these situations are popular in America. In addition to depression and anxiety, other risk factors include problematic eating behaviors such as â€Å"mindless eating,† frequent snacking on high calories foods, overeating, and night eating (Glinski J., Wetzler S., Goodman E.2001). American Psychiatric Association has currently included Binge eating disorder (BED) in an appendix of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) and is characterized by: recurrent episodes of eating during a discrete period of time (at least 2 days a week over a 6 month period); eating large quantity of food than majority of the people would eat at the same time; a feeling of loss of control during the episodes; and guilt or distress following the episodes (Jennifer C. Collins & Jon E. Bentz, 2009). According to Wadden T.A., Sarwer D. B., Fabricatore A. N., Jones L., Stack R., & Williams N.S (2007), BED is estimated to occur in approximately 2% of the general population and between 10% and 25% of the bariatric population. An important differentiation pointed out by the American Psychiatric Association, between BED and bulimia/anorexia is that BED is not associated with any regular compensatory behaviors, such as purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. It can therefore be implied that the majority of individuals with BED are overweight. Night eating, which was first identified in 1955 as another disorder that can lead to remarkable weight gain, though night eating syndrome (NES) is not currently recognized by the American Psychiatric Association as a distinct diagnosis in the DSM-IV-TR. Night eating syndrome is characterized by excessive late night consumption (> 35% of daily calories after the evening meal), unhealthy eating patterns, â€Å"morning anorexia,† insomnia, and distress (Stunkard A. J., Grace W. J. & Wolff H. G. 1955). NES occurs in approximately 1% of the general population and an estimated 5-20% of the bariatric population (Wadden T.A., Sarwer D. B., Fabricatore A. N., Jones L., Stack R., & Williams N.S. 2007). More recently, NES has been seen as a disorder of circadian rhythm that includes a delay of appetite in the mornings and the continuation of appetite and over consumption of food during the night (Jennifer C. Collins & Jon E. Bentz, 2009). PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF OBESITY There are several possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the advancement and prolongation of obesity. This field of research had been almost unapproached until the leptin gene was discovered in 1994 by J. M. Friedman’s laboratory (Zhang, Y., Proenca, R., Maffei, M., Barone, M., Leopold, L., Friedman, J.M., 1994). These researchers proposed that leptin was a satiety element. However, soon after J. F. Caro’s laboratory could not ascertain any mutations in the leptin gene in humans with obesity. In 1995, Considine, RV; Considine, EL; Williams, CJ; Nyce, MR; Magosin, SA; Bauer, TL; Rosato, EL; Colberg, J., & Caro, J.F. proposed a contrary view that Leptin expression was increased, postulating the possibility of Leptin-resistance in human obesity. Since the discovery of leptin, insulin, ghrelin, orexin, cholecystokinin, adipokines, peptide tyrosine tyrosine, as well as many other mediators have been researched. The adipokines are intermediators produced by adipose tissue; their action is thought to revise many obesity-related diseases. Leptin and ghrelin are considered to be interrelated in their effect on appetite, with ghrelin produced by the stomach regulating short-term appetitive control (i.e. hunger pangs when the stomach is empty and satiety when the stomach is stretched). Leptin is created by adipose tissue to signal fat storage reservoirs in the body, and mediates long-term appetitive controls (i.e. to eat more when fat storages are low and less when fat storages are high). Although administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese humans who have deficiency in leptin, most obese humans are considered to be leptin resistant and have been found to have high levels of leptin (Hamann A., & Matthaei S. 1996). This resistance is thought to explain in part why administration of leptin has not been shown to be effective in suppressing appetite in most obese people (Flier J.S. 2004). Leptin and ghrelin act on the hypothalamus and are produced peripherally. They control appetite through their actions on the central nervous system. They act on the hypothalamus, a region of the brain central to the coordination of food consumption and energy expenditure. There are several circuits within the hypothalamus that contribute to its performance in integrating appetite, the melanocortin pathway being the most well understood (Flier J.S. 2004). The circuit starts with an region of the hypothalamus, the arcuate nucleus, that has outputs to the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), the brains feeding and satiety centers, respectively (Boulpaep, Emile L., Boron, & Walter F. 2003). According to Flier J.S. (2004), the arcuate nucleus contains two distinct groups of neurons; the first group co expresses neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) and has stimulatory inputs to the LH and inhibitory inputs to the VMH and the second group coexpresses pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and has stimulatory inputs to the VMH and inhibitory inputs to the LH (Flier J.S. 2004). Consequently, NPY/AgRP neurons stimulate feeding and inhibit satiety, while POMC/CART neurons stimulate satiety and inhibit feeding (Flier J.S. 2004). Both groups of arcuate nucleus neurons are regulated in part by leptin. Leptin inhibits the NPY/AgRP group while stimulating the POMC/CART group (Flier J.S. 2004).   Researches done by Flier J.S., 2004, thus concluded that a deficiency in leptin signaling, either via leptin deficiency or leptin resistance, leads to overfeeding and may account for some genetic and acquired forms of obesity. EFFECT ON HEALTH Obesity is a severe medical condition and a chronic health issue worldwide. The association between body weight and mortality is a subject of concern, especially in regards to the optimal weight for longevity (JoAnn E. Manson, M.D., Walter C. Willett, M.D., et al, 1995). The significance of understanding the true relationship between weight and mortality is underlined by the increasing prevalence of obesity in the United States (Kuczmarski RJ, et al, 1994) especially women (Harlen WR, et al, 1988). Obesity is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (e.g., heart disease, stroke and high blood pressure), diabetes (e.g. type 2 diabetes), musculoskeletal disorders (e.g., osteoarthritis), some cancers (e.g., endometrial, breast, and colon cancer), high total cholesterol or high levels of triglycerides, liver and gallbladder diseases, sleep apnea and respiratory problems, reproductive health complications such as infertility and mental health conditions (WHO, 2012). Obesity and Cancer Obese people are more vulnerable to cancer and their prognosis is extremely worse when diagnosed. Men that are obese are 33% more likely to die from cancer and obese women also have a 50% higher likelihood of dying from breast cancer (Weight Management Centre, 2010). Additional to obesity, cancer has recently been linked to diet and physical activity status (Bray 2004, Barnard 2004, Wiseman 2008). The cancers most significantly associated with obesity in women are cervical, uterine, kidney, breast and endometrial cancer and in men are colon, pancreatic and liver cancer (Calle, Rodriguez, Walker-Thurmond & Thun 2003). One study, using National Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results data, estimated that in 2007 in the United States, about 34,000 new cases of cancer in men (4 percent) and 50,500 in women (7 percent) were due to obesity. The percentage of cases attributed to obesity varied widely for different cancer types but was as high as 40 percent for some cancers, particularly endometrial cancer and esophageal adenocarcinoma (National Cancer Institute, 2012). Obesity and cardiovascular disorders Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the major cause of death in U.S. Obese people are more liable to die from CVD largely due to accelerated atherosclerosis, hyperlipidaemia, loss of glyceamic control and hypertension. Until recently the relationship between obesity and coronary heart disease was viewed as indirect, i.e., through covariates related to both obesity and coronary heart disease risk (Lew E.A., Garfinkel L., 1979) including hypertension; dyslipidemia, particularly reductions in HDL cholesterol; and impaired glucose tolerance or non–insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Insulin resistance and accompanying hyperinsulinemia are typically associated with these comorbidities (Reaven G.M., 1988). Although most of the comorbidities linking obesity to coronary artery disease increase as BMI increases, they also relate to the total distribution of body fat. Long-term longitudinal studies, however, indicate that obesity as such not only relates to but independently predicts coronary atherosclerosis (Manson J.E., et al., 1995; Garrison R. J., et al. 1985; Rabkin S.W., 1977). Messerli F. H. (1982) stated that left ventricular hypertrophy is mostly seen in patients with obesity and is related to systemic hypertension and may be related to the severity of obesity. Hypertension is approximately three times more commonly found in obese individuals than normal-weight persons (Van Itallie T.B., 1985). This relationship may be directly related such that when weight increases, there is an increase in blood pressure (Kannel W.B., Brand N., et al., 1967) and when weight decreases, blood pressure also decreases (Reisin E., Frohlich E.D., et al., 1983). Obesity and mental health Individuals diagnosed with obesity tend to be less favorable on all levels of the psychological assessment and may exhibit several symptoms ranging from mere sadness to chronic depression. Evident are more episodes of mood swings, anxiety, personality and eating disorders, basically related to or associated with obesity experienced by individuals with obesity (Pickering, Grant, Chou, Compton 2007). Obesity may be an inception of psychiatric manifestations and vice versa and is related to psychosocial deterioration and bias based on weight. This comprises of loss of self-worth, and reduced self-esteem associated with stigmatization. Stigmatization can further lead to desolation and withdrawal and thus many obese individuals seek solace in binge eating, thereby gaining more weight. Based on reports from Roberts, Deleger, Strawbridge & Kaplan 2003; Herva, Laitinen, Miettunen, Veijola, Karvonen & Lasky 2006; Kasen, Cohen, Chen &Must 2008, concern, shame and guilt associated with low self-worth, which is finally related to excessive food consumption completes the obesity-mental disorder circle. There is bias and discrimination associated with obesity. They generally report reduced quality of life and functional wellbeing, collectively called Health-related quality of life (HRQOL) (Puhl & Brownell 2001; Wadden & Phelan 2002). This relationships is majorly expressed by women (Fontaine 2001) and for people with severe obesity (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope & Kessler 2007; Scott, Bruffaerts, Siomn, Alonso, Angermeyer, de Girolamo et al. 2008). Obesity and diabetes Diabetes is usually a terminal illness. i.e. it is a lifelong chronic disease characterized by high levels of sugar in the blood. One of the major risk factors for diabetes is obesity. Obesity is directly associated with Diabetes 2. The association between obesity and type 2 diabetes are firmly established and without the intervention of a healthy diet and proper exercise, obesity can lead to type 2 diabetes over a very short period of time.   In fact, obesity is believed to account for 80-85% of the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, while recent research suggests that obese people are up to 80 times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than those with a BMI of less than 22 (National Health Service, 2014). It is a known fact that obesity carries a greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes, especially if you have excess weight around your abdomen. Studies postulates that abdominal fat causes fat cells to releases ‘pro-inflammatory’ chemicals, which can reduce the body’s sensitivity to the insulin, this can also disrupt the function of insulin responsive cells and their ability to react to insulin. This is known as insulin resistance   which is a primary activator for type 2 diabetes. Excess abdominal fat is a major high-risk form of obesity. SOCIO-ECOMOMIC/ FINANCIAL COST OF OBESITY In 1999-2000, nearly 65 percent of U.S. adults were either obese or overweight. Obesity accounts for $117 billion a year in direct and indirect economic costs. Obesity is associated with 300,000 deaths per year, and is fast becoming the leading cause of preventable deaths† (Mancino, Lin, and Ballenger, 2004). Certainly, obesity has become a large problem in America. Recent increase in meal portions and reduction in availability of natural food production may propose why people find it challenging to maintain a healthy diet. Although, certain People have been successful at maintaining a healthy nutritional status and avoiding this unhealthy situation. Gary Becker’s human capital theory is a groundwork that helps to clarify the effect of weight status on the economy in terms of the labor market outcomes for the individual. Human capital is the educational qualification, job experience/training, and the health condition that workers devote their time in to boost their capacity and skills to be â€Å"rented out† to employers (Ehrenberg and Smith, 2005). Healthy weight status in relation to labour is a type of human capital investment. According to Robert Pindyck and Daniel Rubinfeld (2004), â€Å"When an investment decision is made, the investor commits to a current outlay of expenses in return for a   stream of expected future benefits.† These stated costs for a healthy weight may include buying of food with high nutritional values and creating time for physical activities. As an investment, the individual sacrifices money, time and other resources to attain a healthy weight to become more productive in the future and, hence, earn higher income. Obese workers miss more days of work and inflict more cost on employers especially in medical and disability claims and also workers compensation claims. As a result, firms end up with extra costs associated with obesity, this is one of the economic effects of obesity. Obesity places significant burden on the society through health care expenditures and disability payments combined through group health insurance and public programs. The estimated annual medical cost of obesity in the U.S. was $147 billion in 2008 U.S. dollars; the medical costs for people who are obese were $1,429 higher than those of normal weight (CDC, 2011). Obesity there has direct and indirect effect on the Nation’s resources, as more money is spent on the obese due to the high risk of comorbidity with other life threatening diseases like type 2 diabetes, osteoarthritis and cardiovascular diseases. TREATMENT There are several weight-loss schemes available but many are ineffectual and short-term, especially for those who are morbidly obese. The strategies for weight loss with non-surgical programs usually involve a combination of diet modification, behavior modification therapy and appropriate exercise. Dietary Modification Dietary modifications for obesity are designed to create a negative energy intake-energy expenditure balance (i.e., calories consumed < calories expended) by reducing daily energy intake below the required level. The required energy varies by weight, sex and level of physical exercise such individuals with higher weights, more activity have greater energy needs, including men (Melanson K. & Dwyer J. 2002). Uniformly, higher energy deficits results in higher weight losses. Low calorie diet is recommended for obese individuals and they are advised to check calorie content of meals before consumption. Very low calorie diet is recommended for morbidly obese individuals with little or no success in low diet consumption. Behaviour Therapy The oldest report of the use of behavioral therapy in the management of obesity occurred in 1967. Since then, it has been widely used in the management of obesity (Gupta R. & Misra A. 2007). Behavior therapy involves setting out goals and principles to patients to aid their adherence to the diet modification and activity goals for weight loss. Conventional tactics include self-monitoring of food intake and exercise, reduced portion of meals and number of times of food intake, intellective restructuring, problem solving, and prevention of regression. The primary aim of behavior modification therapy is to change eating pattern and exercise practices to promote weight loss (CDC, 2011). Components of behavioral therapy Self-monitoring: This is one of the main elements of behavior therapy in obesity. Self-monitoring includes maintaining food dairies and activity logs (Guare J.C., et. Al., 1989).Stimulus Control: This is the second key element in behavior therapy. In this element, focus is placed on altering the environment that initiates eating and modifying it to help prevent overeating. Stimulus control includes proper purchase of food items, excluding energy-dense processed food and introducing more fruits and vegetables (Wing R.R., 2004) Slower eating: Reducing the speed of eating so as to allow signals for fullness come into play.Goal setting: Setting realistic goals for one’s self or setting goals for patients as appropriate (Bandura A. & Simon K.M., 1977). Behavioral contracting: Reinforcing of successful outcomes or rewarding good behaviors plays a key role (Volpp K. G., et. al., 2008).Education: Nutritional education is a necessary component of a successful behavior therapy for obesi ty. A structured meal plan in conjunction with consultation with a dietician will be helpful (Pedersen S. D., et. al., 2007).Social support: Behavioral modification is more sustainable in the long term when there is social support. Enhancing social support is essential for behavioral therapy (Avenell A. et. al., 2004). Physical activity Physical activity is the third component of non-surgical weight loss interventions and lifestyle modification. The advantages of physical activities include promoting negative energy balance by maximizing calorie expenditure, preserving fat-free part during weight loss, and improving cardiovascular fitness. Physical activity, however, is ineffective in weight loss in the absence of diet modification. The greatest benefit of physical activity is in facilitating the maintenance of weight loss (Pronk N.P & Wing R.R. 1992). Case studies have shown that people who exercise regularly are more successful in maintaining weight losses than are those who do not exercise. Kayman S., Bruvold W., Stern J.S. 1990; Klem M.L., Wing R.R., McGuire M.T., Seagle H.M., Hill J.O.1997). Additional evidence comes from randomized trials. Participants who receive diet plus exercise maintain greater weight losses 1 year after treatment than do those who receive diet alone, although the differences are not always statistically significant (Wing, R.R. 1999). PREVENTION Obesity is a long-lasting medical condition, which is linked with several debilitating and life-threatening conditions. The increasing rate of obesity globally is a public health concern (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). Hence an effective way to control obesity requires strategies that would tackle the major issues relating to prevention (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). The treatment and prevention of obesity are interrelated. The prevention of obesity involves several levels i) Primary ii) Secondary iii) Tertiary (Timothy P.G., 1997). Primary prevention: The goal of primary prevention is to reduce the number of new cases. Diet modification/ healthy diet habits is a primary way of preventing obesity. Sedentary life style which is one of the causes of obesity can be prevented by appropriate exercises and activities that help burn out excess calories in the body and also prevent accumulation of fat. Simple habits ranging from 30 minutes walk in a day to weekly work out at the gymnasium can go a long way in maintaining a healthy weight. Health education is also very important in this aspect because some individuals in the community are unaware of the health implications of their habits. Appropriate health education programs should be organized to increase awareness. Accessibility to healthy food is also an important factor in the prevention of obesity. Formulations of policies that would facilitate healthy eating habit should be adopted by the Government; this would go a long way in reducing the economic effects of ob esity and the burden on the Nation’s resources. Policy and environmental approaches that make healthy choices available, affordable and easy can be used to extend the propagation of strategies designed to raise awareness and support people who would like to make healthy lifestyle changes (CDC, 2011).Secondary prevention: Secondary prevention is to lower the rate of established cases in the community (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). Secondary prevention includes strategies to diagnose and treat an existing medical condition in its early stage to avoid complications. (Jeffery G.K., 2014). Tertiary prevention: Tertiary prevention is to stabilize or reduce the amount of disability related to obesity ((Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). For those who are already obese and showing signs and symptoms of complications, there are clinical preventive maintenance and treatment regimes (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). These treatment includes medications and increase in fruit and vegetable consumpti on. Some extreme cases may include surgery and this is used usually when BMI exceeds 30kg/m2 or 40 kg/m2 and when other treatment options have failed. Examples of surgical procedures to treat obesity and its complications includes gastric partitioning and gastric by-pass (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). REFERENCES Allison, B. D., Fontaine, R. K., Manson, E. J., & VanItallie, B. T. (1999). Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States. Journal of American Medical Association , 282 (16), 1530-8. Barness, A. L., Opitz, M. J., & Gilbert, E. (2007). Obesity: Genetic, molecular and environmental aspects. American Journal of Medical Genetics , 143 A (24), 3016-3034. Calle, E. E., Thun, J. M., Petrelli, M. J., Rodriguez, C., & Heath, W. C. (1999). Body mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U. S. adults. New England Journal of Medicine , 341 (15), 1097-105. Cawley, J., & Meyerhoefer, C. (2012). The medical care costs of obesity: An instrumental variables approach. Journal of Health Economics , 31 (1), 219-230. CDC.gov. (2011). National Diabetes Fact Sheet. Retrieved November 29, 2014, from Center for Disease Control and prevention http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2011.pdf Flegal, M. K., Ogden, L. C., Wei, R., Kuczmarski, L. R., & Johnson, L. C. (2001). Prevalence of overweight in US children: Comparison of growth charts from the centre for disease control and prevention with other reference values for body mass index. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 73 (6), 1086-93. Glenny, A., & et, a. (1997). A systematic review of the interventions for the treatment of obesity and the maintenance of weight loss. International Journal of Obesity and Related Disorders . Gray, S. D., & Fujioka, K. (1991). Use of relative weight and body mass index for the determination of adiposity. Journal of Clinical Epidermiology , 44 (6), 545-550. Haslam, W. D., & James, P. W. (2005). Obesity. Lancet , 366 (9492), 1197-1209. Healthy weight: Assessing your weight; BMI: About BMI for children and teens. (2009, April). Retrieved April 2009, from Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. Miech, A. R., Kumanyika, K. S., & Stettler, N. (2004). Trends in the association of poverty with overweight among US adolescents. Journal of American Medical Association , 2385-2393. Mokdad, H. A., Marks, S. J., Stroup, F. D., & Gerberding, L. J. (2004). Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. Journal of American Medical Association , 291 (10), 1238-45. Ogden, L. C., Flegal, M. K., Carroll, D. M., & Johnson, L. C. (2002). Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000. Journal of the American Medical Association , 288 (14), 1728-1732. Popkin, M. B., Adair, S. L., & Ng, W. S. (2012). Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutrition Reviews , 70 (1), 3-21. Sturm, R. (2007). Increases in morbid obesity in the USA: 2000-2005. Journal of Public Health , 121 (7), 492-6. Sweeting, N. H. (2007). Measurement and definitions of obesity in childhood and adolescence: Afield guide for the uninitiated. Nutritional Journal , 6 (1), 32.